For example, IL-33 contributes to host defense against parasitic and bacterial infections and exerts cardioprotective effects (Palmer and Gabay, 2011; Erfurt et al., 2021), however, in chronic gastritis, IL-33 release after parietal cell loss induces IL-13 production from ILC2s to promote intestinal goblet cell differentiation in mice (Privitera et al., 2024). Here, IL33 is linked to bacterial infectious disease.