The inhibitory effects of oestrogen via ER-β activation in RCC involve dampening downstream hormone signalling, including AKT, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) and janus kinase (JAK) activation, while increasing the expression of apoptotic genes such as BH3 interacting-domain death agonist (Bid), Caspase-3, Caspase-8 and Caspase-9.54,67 Conversely, subsequent investigations revealed the contrary role of ER-β in RCC. This evidence concerns the gene AKT1 and renal cell carcinoma.