TNF and Cognitive impairment: Marioni et al. (2010) confirmed the association between inflammation and cognitive impairment in diabetic patients. Gorska-Ciebiada et al. (2015) found that cognitive dysfunction in diabetic patients was associated with higher levels of inflammatory markers (CRP, IL-6, and TNF-α). Additionally, in the hippocampus of DACD mice, there was an elevation in inflammatory cytokines IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α (Nan et al., 2022).