CSF2 and neoplasm: Several immunotherapies have received FDA approval: immune checkpoint blockade that enhances T cell responses by releasing their inhibitory mechanisms6,7; tumor-specific CD8+ T cells with engineered chimeric antigen receptors (CARs)8; oncolytic viruses9; and the autologous therapeutic vaccine, sipuleucel-T (Provenge®), in which patient-derived DCs are loaded with prostate tumor antigen, stimulated with GM-CSF, and injected back into the patient to activate tumor-specific CD8+ T cells10.