INS and dental caries: In particular, advanced glycated end products of DM2 interfere with the signaling systems activated by insulin and IGFs (Ramasubbu and Devi Rajeswari, 2023), leading to altered growth and turnover of dental/alveolar cells (Wang et al., 2012; Lauritano et al., 2015; Escudero et al., 2017; Oyanagi et al., 2019; Bashir, 2021; He et al., 2022; Huseynova et al., 2022), which also occurs in the course of dental caries (Alkharobi et al., 2018).