TNF and COVID-19: The likely mechanism may be that an inflammatory cytokine storm occurs during COVID-19 (26), releasing large numbers of interleukins (e.g., IL-6 and IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interferons (IFNs), and complement proteins (27), which leads to excessive immune cell activation that attacks the pathogen while causing damage to healthy cells, including intestinal microbes (28).