Total PBMCs from PWH were analyzed for the following IFNs and ISGs by qPCR: type I IFN-α and IFN-β, which are in blood, predominantly produced by monocytes/macrophages and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs); type II IFN-γ, produced by T cells; and a selection of ISGs (IRF5, ISG15, RSAD2, IFI27, IFI44L, NMI, and IRF8) that have previously been shown to change during acute HIV-1 infection and in pathogenic SIV infection [22, 36–38]. This evidence concerns the gene ISG15 and HIV-1 infection.