NFKB1 and Insulin resistance: In summary, sub-chronic exposure to the low-observable adverse effect level (LOAEL) dose of cadmium resulted in hepatic insulin resistance associated with several factors, such as Cd accumulation in the liver, increased oxidative stress, inflammation, and disrupted expression of key signaling molecules (NF-κB, Nrf2, JNK, and p38 MAPKs).