Notably, qRT-PCR analysis of freshly resected human specimens revealed upregulation of all 5 LOX isoforms (LOX and LOXL1–4, collectively referred to as pan-LOX hereafter) within human CCA compared to adjacent normal liver, suggesting each plays a key role in shaping the CCA TME and emphasizing the importance of simultaneously targeting all isoforms (Figure 1F). This evidence concerns the gene LOX and cholangiocarcinoma.