By day 3, treated mice also had considerably reduced tissue damage, as shown by a significant decrease in ulcer area as compared to vehicle-treated controls (Fig. 3, C and D), a significant reduction in bacterial burden of approximately 1 log (Fig. 3E), and a reduction in serum levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor–α (TNFα) (Fig. 3F) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) (Fig. 3G), but not IL-1β (Fig. 3H). Here, TNF is linked to ulcer disease.