TSN and cancer: Toosendanin (TSN) has been extensively studied in scientific research and clinical medicine, owing to its unique biological properties (Fig. 1f) [216].Preclinical studies conducted in in vitro and in vivo conditions have confirmed that TSN has potential anti-cancer properties against a variety of cancer types [217], including breast cancer, colorectal cancer, leukemia, prostate cancer, lymphoma, and hepatocellular carcinoma by suppressing the MEK/ERK, MAPK/JNK andPI3K/AKT pathways, which lead to apoptosis and cell cycle arrest [218].