GDF15 and myocardial infarction: This usually results inheart failure, as well as an increased risk of myocardial infarction [104, 105].The hypertrophic signaling effect mediated by GDF-15 via the epidermal growthfactor receptor (EGFR), PI3K, AKT, ERK, as well as SMAD proteins is controversialin this regard [95, 99, 101] (Fig. 4; Table 4).