TNF and COVID-19: Indeed, in COVID-19, high levels of IL-6 and TNF-α were associated with a greater chance of developing respiratory failure and contributed to the formation of fibrinogen and other factors in the coagulation cascade (Lipworth et al., 2020; Vultaggio et al., 2020; Lazzaroni et al., 2021), and IL-33 has been shown to be upregulated in COVID-19 patients and strongly associated with poor outcomes (Gao et al., 2022).