PIM1 and cancer: Furthermore, it was reported that TZDs affected cancer development, progression and metastasis, among which the Raf/MEK/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT, Wnt signal transduction pathways, PIM-1 and PIM-2 protein kinases overexpression, receptor-stimulated genes and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) signaling cascades which are the most commonly up-regulated in human cancers [29].