TNF and colitis: Studies have shown that saffron and its bioactive compounds may have an inhibitory effect that leads to calprotectin levels’ reduction in the colon of rats with induced colitis via the inhibition of the release of several pro-inflammatory cytokines, including IL-6, TNF-alpha [224,225], and calprotectin as we previously reported in patients with IBD and in DSS-colitis mice models [160].