The disparate outcomes of clinical trials exploring galunisertib combinations can be attributed to tumor heterogeneity, variations in patient demographics and disease stages, differences in drug dosing and pharmacokinetics, interactions between TGF-β and other cellular pathways, and study design specifics.489 These factors highlight the complexity of TGF-β targeted therapies and the necessity for tailored treatment strategies and further mechanistic studies. The gene discussed is TGFB1; the disease is neoplasm.