TNF and hepatitis A virus infection: In the xenograft model, preventive TNF blockade not only alleviates colitis and hepatitis in the mice but also maintains the efficacy of immunotherapy.338 Actually, anti-TNF antibodies such as infliximab and adalimumab have been widely used for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease and some autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis.339,340 Badran et al. reported five cancer patients treated with ICB developed immune-related enterocolitis (irEC) within 40 days of treatment onset, confirmed by endoscopy to be acute inflammation.