GAST and chronic atrophic gastritis: The most common primary interventions sought to identify GC risk factors like Hp infection, gastric atrophy, intestinal metaplasia, and dysplasia using either, or a combination of, Helicobacter pylori IgG antibody (HPA), 14C-urea breath test (UBT), Gastrin-17 (G-17), MiRNA screening, or serum pepsinogen (PG) I and I/II (pepsinogen levels at or below 70 mg L−1 (≤70 μg/L) for pepsinogen I and 3.0 for the pepsinogen ratio I/II warrant follow-up gastric cancer screening and diagnosis [12]).