TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: In addition to TNF, numerous other pro-inflammatory cytokines released by monocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, DCs, and B cells are implicated in IBDs, such as IL-12 [229], IL-23 [230], IL-1β [215], IL-6, and IL-17, among others [220], some of which are being used as therapeutic targets to monitor IBD [230].