TNF and coinfection: However, IL-1β and TNF showed a significant increase with increasing viral load in group 1 consistent with cross-sectional data (Fig. 7, E and F; and Fig. S5 D) showing that viral infection is associated with an increase in these proinflammatory cytokines, particularly in the setting of pathobiont coinfection which was also found in almost all group 1 samples (white circles, Fig. 7, C–F).