TNF and neoplasm: CESC cells induce macrophage polarization into M1-like tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs), which produce fewer pro-inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and IL-10 but more anti-inflammatory cytokines like IL-92 (Sánchez-Reyes et al., 2014; Zhou et al., 2021).