TNF and atherosclerosis: There is much high-quality evidence in the literature from in vivo studies that chronic exposure to PM2.5 increases serum Interleucin 6 (IL-6), Tumor Necrosis Factor alpha (TNF-α), total cholesterol (TC), and Low-density lipoprotein C (LDL-C) levels, increases the expression of oxidative stress-related genes, causes progression of atherosclerosis, and leads to increased inflammation and redox levels in mice [95].