INS and type 2 diabetes mellitus: The metabolic pathways involved in potential biomarkers for diabetes and its complications reflect the intricate metabolic network alterations characteristic of these diseases, encompassing but not limited to the following key pathways and their relationship to diabetes: (1) Insulin signaling and glucose metabolism pathways [66]: The insulin signaling pathway occupies a central role in the pathogenesis of diabetes, where insulin resistance leads to aberrant glucose metabolism, a primary feature of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM).