Cu also activates phosphatidyl-inositol-3-kinase (PI3K), an enzyme that activates auto-inflammatory mediators, recruits inflammatory cells and airway remodeling (Reddel et al., 2022), and increases expression of various ILs (e.g., IL-1β, IL-6, IL-8, IL-19) (Winter et al., 2021), iNOS, and pro-inflammatory factors, such as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), thereby inducing chronic diseases, such as metabolic disorders and cancer (Pereira et al., 2016). This evidence concerns the gene PTGS2 and cancer.