SMAD2 and neoplasm: These findings collectively suggest that CPAE effectively inhibits tumor proliferation and metastasis in vivo. In Figure 9, we summarize the anti-pancreatic cancer mechanism of CPAE, which involves inducing apoptosis, inhibiting invasion and migration, and regulating the caspase-dependent PARP pathway and TGF-β1-Smad2/3 signaling-mediated EMT.