Studies have also shown that TPHP and TBP have antagonistic activities against human estrogen receptor α (Erα) and/or β (Erβ), androgen receptor (AR), glucocorticoid receptor (GR), and progesterone X receptor (PXR), supporting the effect of TBP and TPHP on endocrine disruption which may increase the risk of GDM development48,49. Here, AR is linked to gestational diabetes.