TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: Both in vivo and in vitro studies have shown that EGCs can turn into reactive glia after encounters with IBD-associated stimuli such as bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and immune cell-derived pro-inflammatory factors including interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα), and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) [63–66].