The covariance model also confirmed that ILI was more effective than the standard intervention in reducing the FAP level (LS mean difference: 16.07 [95% CI: 8.90–23.25] dB/m, p < 0.001), which implied that the ILI was superior to the standard intervention in reducing FAP levels in NAFLD (Fig. 2). Here, FAP is linked to metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease.