In the replication cohort results, we observed that PSMA4 has a causal relationship with lung adenocarcinoma, KIAA1614-AS1 is causally linked to lung squamous cell carcinoma, and HYKK (AGPHD1) has a causal relationship with non-small cell lung cancer, lung adenocarcinoma, and lung squamous cell carcinoma; these findings are presented in Fig. 2E. Notably, only HYKK (AGPHD1) was replicated in the FinnGen study, and it was consistently replicated across non-small cell, adenocarcinoma, and squamous subtypes. This evidence concerns the gene PSMA4 and squamous cell lung carcinoma.