AR and nephrolithiasis: In addition, several studies have updated the role of androgen receptor (AR) signaling in nephrolithiasis formation, for example, upregulation of liver glycolate oxidase and renal epithelial nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase (NAPDH) to increase oxalate biosynthesis67,68, and inhibition of macrophage recruitment and its ability to phagocytose crystals69.