TGFB1 and neoplasm: In early tumor stages, TGF-β1 may trigger tumor cell apoptosis and inhibit tumor cell proliferation; however, in advanced tumors, the high concentration of TGF-β1 in the tumor microenvironment promotes tumor progression by initiating immune escape, inducing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, and thus promoting tumor angiogenesis[92–93].