TNF and inflammatory bowel disease: This analysis included the cytokines IL-8, TNF-α, and IL-6 and the inflammatory enzymes cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and the inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), due to their pivotal roles in sustaining inflammation in IBD models, as well as the antioxidant enzymes catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione reductase (GSR), given their critical function in neutralizing free radicals and managing oxidative stress during inflammation and conditions of excessive intestinal serotonin bioavailability.