In addition to the cytoadherence of iRBCs and chemotaxis of mononuclear immune cells, a strong local expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 seems to be a critical event in the establishment of tubulointerstitial injury and mesangioproliferative glomerulonephritis during murine severe malaria [19,28]. Here, TNF is linked to malaria.