In addition, we observed that the expressions of PD-L1 and CD155, ligands of PD-1 and TIGIT, were significantly upregulated in both the cDC and pDC subsets after E. multilocularis infection, which indicated that the upregulation of PD-L1 or CD155 on the surface of DCs could promote T cell functional exhaustion during the development of AE. Here, PDCD1 is linked to acrodermatitis enteropathica.