PTGS2 and osteoarthritis: To comprehensively examine the potential modulation effects and molecular pathways influenced by the oligo-fucoidan-based formula in MIA-induced osteoarthritis, the protein expression of key markers, including phosphorylated p38 (p-p38), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), were assessed using Western blot analysis.