In AD, neuroinflammation has been associated with the severity of brain atrophy and cognitive decline, with reported increases in proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines like tumour necrosis factor α (TNFα), monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1) interleukin-1β (IL-1β), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and prostaglandins across human AD brain and in vivo AD models [40,45,46,47,48]. Here, TNF is linked to Alzheimer disease.