After exclusion of those without data from other registers, suitable comparator individuals, data irregularities, baseline type 2 diabetes, type 1 diabetes or other types of non-type 2 diabetes, insulin use within one month after diabetes diagnosis, and pancreatic diseases, we included 46,150 individuals with coeliac disease and 219,763 comparator individuals in the cohort analysis (Fig. 1). Here, INS is linked to type 1 diabetes mellitus.