XDH and gout: Vitamin C (found in citrus) is known to have a uricosuric effect and is associated with a lower risk of gout.11,54 Fructose, found in SSBs and fruit juices, can induce urate production through increased degradation of adenosine triphosphate to adenosine monophosphate.55 Chlorogenic acid (a polyphenol found in coffee) has weak xanthine oxidase activity and may lower serum urate.56 It remains unclear why we observed a nonlinear association of hPDI with gout among men but a linear association among women.