Ginsenosides Rd and Re acted anti-apoptosis, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, and maintained blood-brain barrier integrity in MPTP-induced PD mice (Choi et al., 2018a), lowered oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, induced Nrf2/heme oxygenase-1 expression and activated the dual PI3K/AKT and ERK pathways in vitro (Zhang et al., 2016; Qiao et al., 2022). Here, HMOX1 is linked to Parkinson disease.