Then, we evaluated the distribution of PD-L1 in aT-sEV-treated tumour cells and revealed significantly decreased membrane PD-L1 levels and increased cytoplasmic PD-L1 levels, indicating the enhanced internalisation of membrane PD-L1 as early as 30 min after treatment with aT-sEVs (Fig. 4d, e). Here, CD274 is linked to neoplasm.