Human amniotic epithelial cells (hAEC) and hAEC-EVs have been demonstrated as efficacious in several models of AKI, such as cisplatin-induced AKI, I/R AKI, and sepsis-associated AKI.66,173,174 Mechanistically, the renoprotective effects through intravenous delivery of hAEC/hAEC-EVs have been demonstrated via suppression of TNF-α/MAPK and caspase signaling pathways, resulting in reduced tubulointerstitial injury and therefore improving renal function. Here, TNF is linked to acute kidney injury.