APOE and chronic kidney disease: In the same study, TMAO increased the serum levels of IL-1β of CKD rats and caused activation of the NLR family pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome and upregulation of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB), both factors involved in the transcription of IL-1β.77 Another study by Yazdekhasti et al. in mice lacking apolipoprotein E (apo-E) suggested a possible role of TMAO in atherogenesis.