S100A1 and neoplasm: Coinhibition of TGF-β and PD-L1 shifts tumours from an excluded to an inflamed state, providing evidence for a model in which TGF-β signalling limits anti-tumour immunity via regulation of T-cell activity within the TME [25]. Our finding indicated the involvement of the S100 protein family in cancer progression by activating the stromal microenvironment.