TNF and temporal arteritis: Despite the steroid-resistant Th1-related reactivity observed in GCA tissue, clinical studies targeting TNF-α and IL-12/IL-23p40 produced conflicting results.90–93 Meanwhile, ex-vivo work suggests that IFN-γ expression can be modulated by glucocorticoid treatment post-transcriptionally.86 Collectively, these findings highlight the complexity of T-cell signatures in GCA and the variability between studies.