Apart from corticosteroids, other anti-inflammatory agents have also been used to treat TB-IRIS, including NSAIDs, immunomodulatory drugs (thalidomide, TNF-α inhibitors such as infliximab and adalimumab), leukotriene antagonists (e.g., montelukast and zileuton), pentoxifylline, hydroxychloroquine, etc. Some of them may be effective for treating cases of steroid-refractory TB-IRIS or even intractable intracranial tuberculosis-associated IRIS. This evidence concerns the gene TNF and tuberculosis.