NOD1 and inflammatory bowel disease: These MVs activated NOD1 signaling pathways in IECs and subsequently triggered NF-κB signaling through the NOD1-RIP2 pathway.108 Another study reported that MVs from EcN directly activated DCs, and these activated DCs induced the differentiation of Treg cells (FOXP3+).122 These studies show that MVs are effective in modulating intestinal immune responses and can be strategically applied as novel therapeutic agents in IBD.