TNF and colitis: Consistent with their immunomodulatory activity, MV-differentiated cells upregulated expressions of IL-10, arginase-1, and PD-L1 and suppressed the proliferation of activated T cells.163Cb-derived MVs polarized macrophages to M2 phenotype157 and significantly reduced the levels of plasma LPS, IL-6, and TNF-α,124 ameliorating DSS-induced colitis in mice.