TNF and inflammatory response: Moreover, our findings of elevated levels of TNF-α and IL-2 following adoptive transfer of EV from AD patients when compared to adoptive transfer of EV from healthy controls suggest that in addition to inflammasome activation, the cargo in EV from AD patients is also capable of inducing an inflammatory response that is not directly related to the inflammasome, but the cargo in these EV also activates other important cytokines involved in cardiac inflammation (Rolski and Blyszczuk, 2020; Lagan et al., 2022).