TNF and Alzheimer disease: (3) Malassezia-stimulated inflammatory factors: Malassezia colonized on AD skin mediates dendritic cell maturation and stimulates keratinocytes to produce a variety of inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, and TNF-α); Malassezia also induces IgE-mediated mast cell degranulation to release leukotrienes, thus perpetuating inflammation [44].