CAF derived lactate may also have other functions such as maintaining increased mitochondrial activity and oxidative phosphorylation in PCa cells (Ippolito et al., 2019), and activating the TGF-β1/p38 MAPK/MMP2/9 pathway to promote invasion in breast cancer cells (Sun et al., 2019). Here, TGFB1 is linked to breast carcinoma.