AR and prostate carcinoma: This mechanism of ligand-independent AR signalling has been described in prostate cancer where upregulation of androgen target genes occurs through pathways such as the protein kinase A (PKA), proteins kinase C and mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) signalling pathway in the presence of non-androgen ligands, such as IL-6 (Lyons et al. 2008, Davey & Grossmann 2016).