However, type 2 diabetes, hallmarked by underlying insulin resistance, is also characterized by defects in glucose-responsive insulin secretion in addition to an eventual decline in β-cell function (Rhodes, 2005; Dludla et al., 2023), and oxidative stress caused by hyperglycemia is considered to be the main reason leading β-cell apoptosis (Cerf, 2013; Inaishi and Saisho, 2020; Miranda et al., 2020; Eguchi et al., 2021; Dinic et al., 2022; Dludla et al., 2023). Here, INS is linked to Insulin resistance.